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Design of beam using Working Stress Method (WSM)

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W orking stress method is one of the oldest design philosophies, and now it is applicable at very fewer places. Nowadays, other methods are used instead of working stress method as they rule out the limitations of WSM. The alternative methods that are used are Limit State Method and Ultimate Load Methods which uses loads factors and ultimate strength in the design.   In it, we start with the analysis part, which is practised in the Mechanics of Solids. The first task is to find bending moments, shear forces, reaction forces at the supports, axial forces, etc. Let us look at the bending stresses first as they produce both types of stresses (compressive and tensile).  The theory of bending ( plane section remains plane before and after bending) is applicable. Still, one thing to note is that this theory is applicable only when the perfect bond between two different materials exists and no-slip occur between the material.   Stress-strain Distribution:    Since it i...
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Types of Concrete

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C oncrete is the most crucial component of buildings and infrastructure nowadays. It works brilliantly when only compressive forces (stresses) are acting, but its tensile strength is low. Its tensile strength is around 10 - 12% of its compressive strength. Its combination with reinforcement makes its most versatile material. Based on the purpose of use, there are the following types of concrete: 1. Plain Concrete:         It is the most straightforward type of concrete which uses cement (along with adhesive other cementitious materials are used when required), sand, water and coarse aggregate.  It is used where no tensile stress is generated—for example - mass concreting in dams, pedestals, etc. 2.  Reinforced Concrete: This composite material has gained so much popularity because it can sustain tensile stress also. Because of reinforced concrete today, the construction of load-bearing beams and columns are possible to this extent.  Use of reinfor...
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Characteristic Strength of Concrete

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C oncrete uses different constituents like coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, water, plasticisers, etc. All of the components come in different variety, and thus the concrete prepared from the same mixture and taken from the same tray can have significantly varying compressive strengths. This variation can be controlled by assuring quality control at the site. Some ways to have reasonable quality control on the concrete mix can be the following: Controlling the size of aggregates by proper sieve analysis.  For coarse aggregates, there are tests like flakiness test and elongation test. For fine aggregates, bulking of sand should be in a reasonable range. Water content should be proper. Mixing of components should be uniform. The graph becomes more and more flatter when quality control is more miserable at the site. If quality control is better, then a sharp peak can be observed. One thing can be concluded that if more specimens are near average compressive strength, your mix is bette...
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